Media Ideology

Marxism - Althusser

Althusser was a French Marxist philosopher, but believed that Marxism was more of a science than just a theory. He concentrated more on Ideology and said that it "represents the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence". This means that he saw Ideology as a means of control; it makes the subjects feel as if they are in control of their own destiny, but really they are being shaped by the ideas of the ruling classes. Althusser subscribed to the Marxist structure consisting of the superstructure and the base, but was anti-economic and anti-humanist. His core beliefs were related to ISA's (Ideological State Apparatus) and RSA's (Repressive State Apparatus). He considered that ISA's were institutions that sought to enforce the ideas and lifestyles of the ruling classes, such as the Media. RSA's were institutions that sought to protect the means of production, usually through threat of violence, such as the Government and Police.

News Corp and Advertising

This refers to the Marxist theory of determining the role of ownership, and also Althusser's theory of ISA's. As previously mentioned, Althusser saw the Media as an institution that upholds the ideals of the ruling classes. Media magnates such as Rupert Murdoch own a vast proportion of media output, and therefore control most of what we see and hear. If we subscribe to what Althusser says, then they can shape this output so that it represents the ruling classes ideas as dominant, and something that we should all aspire to. A possible example that this does happen could be the fact the Rupert Murdoch intervened in the Publication of Chris Patten's Memoirs, as he felt that some of the content would damage the reputation of his business interests.

Williamson and Semiology

Judith Williamson wrote the book "Decoding Advertisements" in 1978, which is still considered a classic text on the use of semiotics in advertising. Whereas most semiotic deconstruction looks to break down adverts into it's component parts and divulge meaning from them individually, Williamson sought to discover how the meaning behind adverts is created. She says that only the products that are essentially the same, or have the same function, need to be advertised. For example, essentially all soap powders have the same function. i.e. to clean your clothes. You therefore need to create difference in order to advertise it, and this is done through image. This image can then be used to define the social structure of classes, by aligning a particular product with a certain social group. Williamson goes on to say that adverts then change from selling goods, to selling yourself.

Panopticism

1. What is the major effect of the Panopticon?

The Panopticon is a building that was designed using the principles of Michael Foucault's theory of Panopticism. The building is designed in such a way that the occupants feel they are under constant surveillance, even though this may, or may not be the case. The effect of this is that, over time, the occupant will begin to govern themselves internally, based on the threat that they could be being watched.

2. How does the architecture (institution) create and sustain a power relation, independent of the person that exercises it?

The control element of the Panopticon is based more on the threat of surveillance, rather than the actual surveillance itself. There doesn't actually have to be anyone watching, as long as the occupant believes this to be the case. In the Panopticon, the cells of the prison were all facing a central tower, which used lighting and blinds in such a way that the guards could see out, but the prisoners could not see in. This meant that the element of control could be carried out entirely independent of the guards.

3. In what way is the Panopticon efficient?

The Panopticon is efficient as the prison need never employ any guards, or at least it could only have one guard on duty at any given time. As long as the illusion that there is always guards in the tower is never broken, the effect will be the same.

4. How does Panopticism do the work of a naturalist (scientist)?

Panopticism can do this by using the constant surveillance to study human behavior. It can also be used to monitor and adjust behaviors, and carry out social experiments. For example, in an educational environment it could be used to monitor the performance of individual students. This information can then be used to tailor the teaching methods to fit each students learning style.

5. In what ways was the Panopticon a laboratory?

As mentioned in the answer to the previous question, the Panopticon was an ideal place to study human behavior. If the occupants are seen as the subject of an experiment, rather than inmates, then the person in the tower can study, or even manipulate their behavior to obtain different results.

6. List the conditions in which Panopticism strengthens power.

1. The individuals the hold the power can be very few in number, but depending on the surveillance method, a far greater number of people can be affected by it. If you add to this the fact that the holder of the power need not even be present to exercise it, this is a very powerful method.
2. It acts as a preventative measure. As the threat of constantly being watched causes the individual to self govern, this means that crimes and offenses are much less likely to occur.
3. The instruments it uses to exercise control can be few, or perhaps not even physical. The principle of Panopticism is based more on the threat of being watched rather than the actually watching itself. This means that the power is almost intangible, as it can exist purely in the minds of the affected.

7. According to Julius (1831) how is the Panoptic principle particularly useful in a society made of private individuals and the state?

Julius believed that the Panopticon was more than just architectural ingenuity, but brought forward a new type of society. In the past, society had been more about spectacle, whereby the masses congregated and became one whole body. Julius said that spectacle could be used "To render access to a multitude of men the inspection of a small number of objects". Panopticism allowed the reverse of this whereby a small number of individuals could view the masses. This was useful in terms of the state, as they are a small number of individuals and private individuals represent the masses. The state can therefore only relate to the masses by use of panopticism.

8. Also according to Julius, rather than suppress the individual, what effect does the panoptic principle have?

Julius believed that instead of being repressed by panopticsim, we are gradually fabricated within it. This means that the constant surveillance manufactures who we are, according to the will of the state. Just as in the panopticon, the guards in the tower can control and amend the prisoners behavior, the state can do the same with us under the threat that we are all being watched.